Schools often give certificates to students, which parents are encouraged to stick on the bumpers of their cars. The certificates typically say something such as:

MY CHILD IS AN HONOR ROLL STUDENT AT WESTVIEW ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
For the students in the class—other than the student who actually receives the certificate—the certificates are intended as:

a. positive reinforcers.
b. negative reinforcers.
c. classical conditioners.
d. vicarious reinforcers.


d

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