When you have been able to establish a causal claim that you believe is highly probable, which of the following statements should not be used in presenting your argument?

a. ?Almost without fail, when x was present y was absent and vice versa
b. ?These studies prove scientifically that x causes y
c. ?Changes in the level of x have often led to corresponding changes in the level of y
d. ?X is almost certainly a contributing cause of y
e. ?None of the above; all are effective ways to present most causal claims


b

Communication & Mass Media

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