What is the status of affirmative action in college admissions after the Supreme Court decisions in the two cases involving the University of Michigan, Gratz v. Bollinger (2003) and Grutter v. Bollinger (2003)?
a. Affirmative action policies are generally permissible, but they cannot involve race-based quotas or numerical point systems.
b. Affirmative action policies are assumed to be unconstitutional unless the university can demonstrate the need to promote racial tolerance.
c. Affirmative action policies are assumed to be constitutional unless an applicant can demonstrate that race affected the admissions decision.
d. Affirmative action policies must ensure that all racial and ethnic groups are represented in accordance with the population of the nation as a whole.
e. All forms of affirmative action are unconstitutional because they unfairly favor some people over others based on the color of their skin.
a
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