Poverty and school size are presumed common causes that, if omitted from the analysis, result in a biased estimate of the causal effect of parental engagement on the percent of students meeting ELA standards. If this is true, then the best estimate of the true causal effect of parental engagement available in the table is

a. 13.18
b. 8.23
c. 14.23
d. 9.14


d. 9.14

Political Science

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