All past proxy evidence of climate change is anecdotal
What will be an ideal response?
Some evidence is anecdotal, but there is much evidence that is hard data. Proxies
are stand-ins for unmeasurable direct data. There were no thermometers installed hundreds
of thousands of years ago, but plenty of measurable effects that allow the mean temperature
at that time to be determined. Can we accord such evidence the same standing as a
thermometer reading? No, but the agreement of evidence from many sources, the gestalt, is
an indication of how compelling these data are.
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A thermocouple (0.8-mm-OD) is located horizontally in a large enclosure whose walls are at 37°C. The enclosure is filled with a transparent quiescent gas that has the same properties as air. The electromotive force (emf) of the thermocouple indicates a temperature of 230°C. Estimate the true gas temperature if the emissivity of the thermocouple is 0.8.
GIVEN
• Horizontal thermocouple in a large enclosure
• Thermocouple outside diameter (D) = 0.8 mm = 0.0008 m
• Enclosure wall temperature (Te) = 37°C = 310 K
• Gas is enclosure is quiescent and has the same properties as air
• Thermocouple reading (Ttc) = 230°C = 503 K
• Thermocouple emissivity (?) = 0.8
FIND
• True gas temperature (T?)
ASSUMPTIONS
• Enclosure behaves as a black body
• Conduction along the thermocouple out of the enclosure is negligible
SKETCH
PROPERTIES AND CONSTANTS
The Stephan-Boltzmann Constant (?) = 5.67 ?10–8 W/(m2 K4).
A massive star can fuse more and more massive nuclei, but this process is limited by the fact that, at some point, an element that is produced ____
a. becomes completely degenerate in the core, changing the pressure-temperature relationship b. cannot produce energy through fusion c. will only fuse in the presence of even more massive nuclei d. is not found in nature e. decays radioactively before it can undergo fusion
The minimum current that will usually kill the average person is
A) 10. A. B) 0.1 A. C) 1. A. D) 0.01 A. E) 0.1 mA.
What is the hardness of diamond on the Mohs scale?
a. 1 b. 4 c. 7 d. 10