Which of the following illustrates indirect institutional discrimination?

Question

a. As past company policy, the Ajax Axe Company had refused to hire African Americans. Ajax no longer refuses to hire African Americans but maintains a seniority system. Thus, because they have been employed by the company only recently (with the end of the racial bar) it will be many years before African Americans can move beyond entry level positions in the company.
b. Mr. Wong, an Asian American man, goes to the employment office of the Hughes Widget Company to apply for a position for which he seems to qualify. The employment officer tells him she's sorry, but company policy does not permit her to interview him because of his race.
c. Executives of the He-Man Barbell Company assume that women can type and take dictation more competently than men. On that basis, Samuel Smith is refused employment as a secretary at the company.
d. Bill Bilson, a white man, applies for a job as a parole officer with the State Corrections Department. The state requires all applicants to score a minnimum of 100 on an intelligence test. Bill well exceeds the minimum score, but is passed over in favor of a Latino applicant who scores lower on the test.

Answer 1

a