The free energy from the redox reactions in the electron transport chain drives proton pumps that create a hydrogen ion concentration and electrical gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. If these ions cannot readily diffuse, how do they pass back through the inner mitochondrial membrane?
a. Aquaporins in the membrane release the hydrogen ions back into the mitochondrial matrix.
b. The complexes of the electron transport chain reverse direction in response the gradient pressures.
c. They return through an integral membrane protein called ATP synthase which utilizes the potential energy of the gradient to make ATP.
d. They are shuttled back across the membrane by molecular shuttles such as NADH and FADH2.
c. They return through an integral membrane protein called ATP synthase which utilizes the potential energy of the gradient to make ATP.
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