Which of the following issues has been raised regarding the validity of social control theory?

a. Delinquency may lead to weakened social bonds, not vice versa.
b. Social control theory has never been empirically tested.
c. Social control theory applies primarily to lower-class youth and does not explain the criminal behavior of middle- and upper-class youth.
d. Social control theory relies too heavily on social relationships that are difficult to measure.


A

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