A nurse notes that of her clients with multiple tattoos, many are missing quite a few of their teeth. She designs a study to measure causation. Why is this problematic? (Select all that apply.)
a. Tattooing can be expensive.
b. Causing subjects to become multiply tattooed, so as to cause their teeth to fall out, is ethically questionable.
c. Random assignment to group would be impossible.
d. The researcher cannot cause subjects' teeth to fall out; that would be ethically questionable.
e. The study would have to be designed as a large-sample, multisite design.
ANS: B, D
Quasi-experimental and experimental designs examine causality. The power of the design to accomplish this purpose depends on the extent to which the actual effects of the experimental treatment (the independent variable) can be detected by measuring the dependent variable. Not every correlational observation lends itself to an experimental design, because in an experimental design the researcher must cause one of the events to happen, in order to examine its effect on the other variable. This has obvious ethical implications. The principle of beneficence requires the researcher to do good and "above all, do no harm."
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