Which of the following statements is true with regard to the ethical consideration that addresses causing harm or discomfort to research participants?
a. The potential of causing harm or discomfort to participants is only permitted when the participants are animals and not human beings.
b. If a research participant could be caused harm or discomfort, then (s)he must be informed of the full nature of the research before it is conducted.
c. Research participants who are placed at risk for harm or discomfort have the right to know, ahead of time, that they will not be permitted to discontinue their participation in the project.
d. A research project may run the risk of causing harm or discomfort as long as such potential is outweighed by the potential human benefits of the project.
Answer: D
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