Why is immunity to the common cold so difficult to develop, either naturally or through vaccines?
What will be an ideal response?
The primary reason that immunity generally does not develop against the common cold is that there is not a single cause of the disease. Over 200 serotypes of viruses, including enteroviruses (previously called rhinoviruses), coronaviruses, and adenoviruses, can cause the symptoms of the common cold. Therefore, any vaccine designed to protect against the common cold would have to include antigens from all the different viruses that can cause the disease, which is simply not practical or even feasible. The exception to this is the vaccine against adenovirus infections, although it is currently used only for military recruits. Because of the vast number of viruses that can cause the common cold, even natural immunity is difficult to obtain because a person may not encounter the exact same virus serotype twice in a lifetime. In addition, the receptor for ICAM-1 on the virus particle is not accessible by antibodies, preventing antibody neutralization of the virus. However, the frequency of colds does decrease as a person ages, so some immunity undoubtedly occurs, including some herd immunity.
Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension
Section: Viral Diseases of the Upper Respiratory System
Learning Outcome: 22.9
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A. Although some microbes will be killed, those embedded deeply within the biofilm are protected from environmental challenges. B. Biofilms are composed of diverse microbes, and within each biofilm, there are certain to be endospore-formers and thermophiles. C. Dead skin cells continuously replenish the biofilm, and organic soaps provide a continuous carbon source. D. The shower hasn't been thoroughly cleaned in a while, and when I really scrub it, the microbes will all be killed.
__________ percent of American adults are
overweight or obese. a. 30 b. 40 c. 50 d. 60 e. 70
What cytokine is secreted by active T cells and natural killer cells, and inhibits viral replication, enhances phagocytosis in macrophages, boosts production of antibodies by B cells, and activates both natural killer cells and cytotoxic T cells?
A) interleukin-4 B) interleukin-10 C) interferon-alpha D) interferon-gamma E) interleukin-5
Describe two ways (immediate and long term) in which burning a forest leads to an increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases
What will be an ideal response?