Which of the following characterize the late stage of complex regional pain syndrome?
A. Trauma
B. Red skin, excessive sweating, edema, skin atrophy
C. Lack of any sympathetic activity
D. Muscle atrophy, osteoporosis, arthritic changes
E. Excessive acetylcholine release by postganglionic neurons
ANS: D
Rationale: Trauma occurs prior to the development of CRPS. Skin changes and edema usually occur early in the disease process. Sympathetic nervous system activity is normal, as is acetylcholine release. Late stage CRPS is characterized by muscle atrophy, osteoporosis, and arthritic changes.
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