Which of the following does not contribute to the establishment of a vertical osmotic gradient in the interstitial fluid of the renal medulla?
a. The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
b. Countercurrent multiplication in the long loops of Henle of juxtamedullary nephrons
c. Urea recycling between the collecting tubule and long loops of Henle
d. All of the above contribute to the establishment of the gradient.
e. None of the above contribute to the establishment of the gradient.
A
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